K-State Research and Extension

Q: I made a recipe that called for stock but I used broth. What is the difference?
A: Many recipes use stock or broth. Is there a difference? By definition, a stock is made from meat and bones. It may or may not have other ingredients such as vegetables and seasonings, known as a “mirepoix.” Typically the vegetables are roughly chopped and include onions, carrots and celery. The bones add body to the liquid. When it is chilled it will become thick. Stocks have a fuller mouth feel and richer flavor, due to the gelatin released by the bones during their long simmer. Stocks should be used when a sauce is to be reduced significantly or when clarity of the final result is preferred.
Broth is made from meat, vegetables and seasonings. The primary flavor is from the meat. It will also have a thinner consistency. Broths can be substituted for stock when the body of the liquid or clarity isn’t important and when the liquid will be thickened by addition of a starch.

Q: I am interested in freezing my garden produce and potentially some freezer meals, what do I need to know?

A: Freezing food is easy, convenient, and the least time-consuming food preservation method. But freezing food is a science because of the chemical and physical changes that occur over freezer storage time.

Freezing does not kill bacteria, it only slows down the growth of bacteria and slows the enzyme activity which can affect the quality of the food. Freezing will affect the texture of any food because the water in the food expands and breaks cell walls. This results in softer products, especially in fruit. Quality is also affected by fluctuating temperatures during freezer storage. Foods may thaw slightly, then refreeze and ice crystals form on the package. For best storage, keep the freezer below 0°F, this helps retain vitamin content, color, flavor and texture.
Freshness and quality at the time of freezing affect the condition of frozen foods. If frozen at peak quality, thawed foods emerge tasting better than foods frozen near the end of their useful life. The freezing process itself does not destroy nutrients. In meat and poultry products, there is little change in nutrient value during freezer storage.

Color changes can occur in frozen foods. The bright red color of meat as purchased usually turns dark or pale brown depending on its variety. This may be due to lack of oxygen, freezer burn or abnormally long storage. Freezing doesn’t usually cause color changes in poultry. However, the bones and the meat near them can become dark. The dulling of color in frozen vegetables and cooked foods is usually the result of excessive drying due to improper packaging or over-lengthy storage.

Enzyme activity does not harm frozen meats or fish and is neutralized by the acids in frozen fruits. But most vegetables that freeze well are low acid and require brief, partial cooking to prevent deterioration. This is called “blanching.” Blanching slows or stops the action of enzymes that can cause loss of flavor, color and texture. Blanching cleanses the surface of dirt and organisms, brightens the color and helps retard loss of vitamins. Blanching also wilts or softens vegetables and makes them easier to pack. Blanching time is crucial and varies with the vegetable and its size. Underblanching stimulates the activity of enzymes and is worse than no blanching. Overblanching causes loss of flavor, color, vitamins and minerals. Be sure to look up instructions on blanching times for all vegetables. More information can be found at: http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/uga/uga_freeze_veg.pdf

Q: I would like to can soups for this winter. Is that an acceptable practice?
A: Vegetable, dried bean or pea, meat, poultry, or seafood soups can be canned. Be sure to use ONLY ingredients that are recommended for canning. Do not add noodles or other pasta, rice, flour, cream, milk or other thickening agents to home canned soups. If additional ingredients or thickening is desired, those variations should be made when the jar is opened for serving. If dried beans or peas are used, they must be fully rehydrated first. For each cup of dried beans or peas add 3 cups of water, boil 2 minutes, remove from heat, soak 1 hour, heat to boiling, drain.
Each vegetable should be selected, washed, prepared and cooked as described for a ‘hot pack.’ Meats recommended for canning should be covered with water and cooked until tender, then cooled and the bones removed. Next, combine all solid ingredients with hot water, tomatoes or broth, bring to a boil and boil for 5 minutes. Salt can be added to taste, if desired. Do not fully cook the soup before filling jars; the canning process completes the cooking at the same time it eliminates harmful microorganisms.
Jars should only be filled halfway with the mixture of solids. The rest of the jar is filled with the hot liquid leaving 1-inch headspace.
Vegetable-based soups are usually mixtures of low-acid ingredients and they need to be pressure canned. Water bath canning is NOT sufficient for canning soups. The extra heat in pressure canning is needed to destroy the spores of Clostridium botulinum (the microorganism that causes Botulism).
Process the jars in a pressure canner according to instructions in the table relevant to your altitude, pressure canner type and jar size. Please see the National Center for Home Food Preservation’s publication on soups at http://nchfp.uga.edu/how/can_04/soups.html for more information and specific processing times.

Q: I am concerned that the heating/cooling bills in my new house are going to be through the roof because I have an old single unit with manual thermostat.
A: About 3 percent of the U.S. population is using a tablet or smartphone off site to manage “smart” thermostats at home. While smart thermostats are among the newest technologies for energy efficiency, it is possible to see savings with programmable and manual thermostats with a little extra effort. You will see the most savings by adjusting the thermostat and leaving it for 8 to 10 hours, according to research available from U.S. Department of Energy. The research has also shown that the most savings, as much as 10 percent per year, is seen when the thermostat is turned up or down a particular number of degrees.
For greatest savings in the summer, set up the thermostat about 7 degrees Fahrenheit (F) during the day and 4 degrees F at night, considering the base temperature is between 72 F and 74 F. Closing window coverings to keep out the sunlight during the day could also help increase home energy savings. Ceiling fans can benefit home energy savings in the summer months, by circulating cool air through the house. A bathroom or range fan can be turned on to control heat and humidity. Don’t use heat producing appliances such as the dryer or oven during the day, but rather use those at night, if needed.
Turning the thermostat down 8 degrees F in the winter is recommended, when gone or during the night. Window coverings should be left open on sunny days during the winter, as the sunlight can help warm the inside of the house.
If updating a furnace or air conditioner and getting a programmable thermostat, rebates are often available from electric companies and equipment manufacturers. Not only do you save on the cost of the new air conditioner or heating unit, you also then would save over time. Furnace and air conditioning units generally last about ten to fifteen years.

Q: It is time to make lots of jams and jelly in my house, but I want a lower sugar alternative. Can I use honey?
A: For a successful jellied product, a proper ratio or fruit, pectin, acid and sugar is needed. Sugar serves as a preserving agent, contributes flavor and aids in gelling of products. Cane and beet sugar are the usual sources of sugar for jelly or jam. Corn syrup and honey may be used to replace part of the sugar in recipes, but too much will mask the fruit flavor and alter the gel structure. Use tested recipes for replacing sugar with honey and corn syrup. Do not try to reduce the amount of sugar in traditional recipes. Too little sugar prevents gelling and may allow yeasts or molds to grow. You can visit the National Center for Home Preservation for how to’s and tested recipes on a variety of jelly or jam products at www.nchfp.uga.edu/how/can7_jam_jelly.html. Happy Canning!

Q: Why are there so many types of flour and what are their different uses?

A: Different flours have varying levels of protein and fiber, which affect the final baked product.  Flour contains gluten which is the protein that strengthens and binds dough in baking.  Different types of wheat are milled into flour to meet various needs.  Hard red wheat is best for yeast breads while soft wheat is best used in cakes, pastries or other baked goods including crackers or cereal.  Durum wheat is the hardest wheat and is best used for pasta.

Enriched all-purpose flour is the most widely used of all flours.  It comes from the finely ground part of the wheat kernel called the endosperm, which gets separated from the bran and germ during the milling process. It is made from a combination of hard and soft wheat, hence the term all-purpose. This type of flour can be used universally for a wide range of baked products – yeast breads, cakes, cookies and pastries. Enriched all-purpose flour has iron, and four B-vitamins (thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and folic acid) added in amounts equal to or exceeding what is present in whole wheat flour.  Whole wheat flour is milled from the entire kernel of wheat.  The presence of bran reduces gluten development, making products with wheat flour heavier and more dense.  Graham or stone ground flours can be used interchangeably with whole wheat flour, the only difference is their coarseness.  Bread flour is milled for baking use and features a higher gluten content, making it optimal for yeast breads.  Self-rising flour is a type of all-purpose flour that has salt and a leavening agent added.  One cup of self-rising flour contains 1 ½ tsp of baking powder and ½ tsp of salt.  This can be substituted for all purpose flour by decreasing the salt and baking powder called for by the recipe.  Self-rising flour is commonly used to make biscuits and quick breads, but is not recommended for yeast breads.  Cake flour is a fine textured flour milled from soft wheat.  It has a higher percentage of starch and a low protein content which keeps cakes and pastries tender and delicate.  Pastry flour is a “middle of the road” between cake flour and all purpose flour.  It has a slightly higher protein content and more starch than cake flour, making it ideal for cookies, crackers and other similar products.  Gluten flour has a very high protein context and is usually milled from hard spring wheat.  It is used primarily to mix in with other non-wheat or low protein wheat flours to produce a stronger dough structure.

Wheat alternative flours are also available.  If dietary restriction, personal preference or other limitations steer you toward non-wheat flour it is important to note that another binding agent must be included in the recipe to compensate for the lack of wheat

Q: At the KSRE Field Pea Plot tour last week we had some questions on various types of rye.

A: Bruce Anderson, the University of Nebraska forage specialist, notes on the difference between rye and ryegrass: the words rye and ryegrass cause much confusion. Rye (Secale cereal) typically refers to the cereal or small grain plant. It produces a grain with string flavors and colors. Flour made from it is used to make rye breads. Recently, rye has become popular as a forage crop. It grows well in the poorer soils and harsher climates than most other cereals. It survives tough winters or late planting better than other small grains like wheat and triticale. Rye can produce high forage yields but is more coarsely stemmed and less palatable than some other forages. Like wheat, rye varieties can be either winter ryes or spring ryes. When planted during spring, the spring types grow tall and will form seed if allowed to grow towards maturity but winter types may stay short with only leaves. Spring types also grow tall when planted in late summer or fall but they freeze and die over winter, Winter varieties stay leafy during fall, but survive during winter. Often they are among the earliest grasses to green up in spring, making them popular for early grazing before brome and native pastures are ready to graze.  Ryegrass sounds similar to rye in name but it is very different grass. Ryegrass are very palatable, high quality forage grasses. There are several types of ryegrass with varietal differences within each type. The biggest name confusion occurs between annual ryegrass and Italian ryegrass. Botanically, they refer to the same plants (Lolium multiflorum) but in the forage world they have acquired different meanings. These ryegrasses are not true annuals. Under mild winter conditions, especially with sufficient snow cover, annual or Italian ryegrass can survive like a perennial. The term “annual” ryegrass usually refers to cultivars that are used for turf or for cultivators us in the Gulf states that are planted in the fall and grazed during the winter and spring before dying during the summer. In our area, spring plantings grow rapidly and can produce seed heads with each growth cycle. Growth rate slows during the heat of summer and they usually die over winter. “Italian” ryegrass tends to refer to cultivators that grow more like a biennial. They produce mostly high quality leaves while growing vigorously throughout summer and fall if moisture is available. They frequently survive mild winters and produce seed heads the following spring. These cultivars have become increasingly popular for thickening winter-injured forage strands, as a companion crop for seedings of new perennial forages, and as a temporary high quality forage. We often use Italian ryegrass in mixtures with oats to take advantage of abundant early growth of oats followed by the continued high quality growth of Italian ryegrass the remainder of the summer and fall. Perennial ryegrass produces very high quality pasture. It is more persistent than annual (Italian) ryegrass but requires relatively consistent moisture and moderate temperatures to survive. It usually is irrigated and even then only lasts a few years. The different types of ryegrass readily cross with one another. The result of a cross between perennial and annual ryegrass is called by various names including intermediate, short rotation, and hybrid ryegrass. Characteristics vary widely but usually are intermediate to the parents. When purchasing seed for your planting, be sure to understand these terms so you can select the best choice for your plan of use.

Q: I have several dead spots in my established buffalograss lawn, what might it be?

A: There are many factors that could be negatively affecting your buffalograss lawns, but this time of year is typically when we begin to see presence of chinch bugs. Two chinch bug species may cause concern in Kansas. The common “field” chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus is primarily an agronomic pest associated with wheat, corn, and sorghum. They sometimes migrate out of production fields and infest adjoining cool- or warm-season lawns. The western chinch bug, Blissus occiduus, historically has been associated with wheat, brome, and native grasses. They became popularly known as the buffalograss chinch bug when they emerged as a serious pest in buffalograss lawns. They have a wide host range, including zoysiagrass, perennial rye, and Kentucky bluegrass and fescues.

Chinch bugs cause damage by withdrawing plant sap in the crown area. At the same time, they inject a salivary secretion that injures cells and inhibits the translocation of water and nutrients. Initial yellowing progresses to entire plants taking on a straw-brown appearance. Damage ranges from minor thinning to extreme cases where grass is killed. Chinch bugs can be detected by removing a small section of turf and vigorously shaking it over a sheet of white paper to dislodge the insects. You can also detect chinch bugs by removing both ends from a 2-lb metal coffee can, pressing it firmly into the ground in an area with a suspected chinch bug infestation and filling the can with water. Chinch bugs will float to the surface.  If chinch bugs are estimated to exceed 20-25 per square foot (five coffee cans = one square foot) of turf and feeding damage is apparent, control measures are likely to be required.  The best defense against chinch bugs are sound cultural practices to keep the turf stand in optimal condition. Since these insects prefer turf areas high in thatch and organic debris, cultural and mowing practices minimizing thatch accumulation should discourage initial infestations and also may help reduce existing chinch bug problems.  A second approach for deterring western chinch bug infestations involves planting chinch bug-resistant turfgrasses.

Bifenthrin (Talstar, Ortho Bug-B-Gon), lambda-cyhalothrin (Spectracide Triazicide), or carbaryl (Sevin), applied in 3 to 5 gallons of water per 1,000 square feet, should provide acceptable chinch bug control. Prior to treatment, mow the turf to a height of 1 1/2 to 2 inches and remove the clippings. This will minimize interception of the insecticide by the turf canopy.  Immediately following application, irrigate the treated area with 1/8 inch of water to wash the insecticide off grass blades and down into plant crowns and thatch where chinch bugs are feeding. If a granular insecticide is applied, irrigate the turf with at least one-fourth inch of water to activate the insecticide.  In areas where chinch bug numbers are very high, two insecticide applications may be required to achieve satisfactory control. Typically, the first treatment should be applied during mid-June and the second in late July.

In an effort to protect the Kansas poultry industry and to promote stronger biosecurity practices throughout the state, Kansas Department of Agriculture Division of Animal Health has issued a stop movement order, signed by Secretary of Agriculture Jackie McClaskey, targeting Kansas poultry and live birds, effectively cancelling all poultry-related shows and events through calendar year 2015. This includes all types of poultry activities where birds from different flocks are co-mingled.

This will include, but is not limited to: regional and county fairs, festivals, the Kansas State Fair, swap meets, exotic sales and live bird auctions. This measure is being implemented in an effort to prevent the spread of highly pathogenic H5N2 avian influenza (HPAI). Kansas experienced a positive case of HPAI in Leavenworth County in 2015.

This decision was made after careful consideration and consultation with the K-State Research and Extension, Kansas 4-H, Kansas State Fair representatives and other poultry industry officials. Dr. Justin Smith, Deputy Animal Health Commissioner made the announcement.

“The decision to issue movement restrictions regarding poultry and bird events has been made in an effort to protect the poultry industry in Kansas and the economic contribution that the industry makes to our agricultural economy. It is a difficult decision, as I know youth and adults would soon be exhibiting their projects at local fairs,” said Smith. “This decision was not made lightly, but it is necessary we do everything possible to protect the Kansas poultry flock.”

K-State Research and Extension and Kansas 4-H, along with the Kansas State Fair, is working to identify options for youth enrolled in poultry projects to showcase their learning and participate in fairs in ways other than having their birds present.

It is important that all poultry producers continue to monitor their flocks for symptoms of the virus, and notify KDA immediately if they suspect any problems. All bird owners, whether commercial producers or backyard enthusiasts, should prevent contact between their birds and other birds including wild fowl.

The Rawlins County fair will be substituting their poultry exhibits with educational displays on poultry, encouraging participants to enter the market egg show and hosting a poultry skillathon on Thursday July 23^rd at noon.  Poultry participants will compete for prizes by testing their knowledge and hands on skills related to poultry and the poultry industry during this competition.

Q: I was purchasing plants over the weekend and the store clerk pinched the buds of the flowers. Why?

A: Some plants will bloom more profusely if the old, spent flowers are removed, a process called deadheading. Annuals especially, focus their energy on seed production to insure that the species survives. If you remove old flowers, the energy normally used to produce seed is now available to produce more flowers. Perennials can also benefit by lengthening the blooming season. However, some gardeners enjoy the look of spent flowers of perennials such as sedum or purple coneflower. Also, the seed produced can be a good food source for birds.

Not all plants need to be deadheaded, including sedum “Autumn Joy”, melampodium, implatiens, most flowering vines, periwinkle (Catharanthus), and wishbone flower (Torenia).

Those that do increase a bloom in response to deadheading include hardy geraniums, coreopsis, petunias, marigolds, snapdragons, begonias, roses, campanulas, blanket flowers, delphiniums, zinnias, sweet peas, salvia, scabiosa, annual heliotrope, geraniums (Pelargonium), and yarrow.

Deadheading is easily accomplished by removing spent flowers. With some plants, pinching between a thumb and finger can do this, but tough, wiry stems will require a scissors or pruning shears.